Normative and Educational Ethics :: Philosophy Morals Papers

The controversies in our time between teleological and deontological ethics which come down to the problem "from being to ought," referring to human being or nature, can be resolved only by an adequate conception of human nature. Taking up the ancient tradition (Plato, Aristotle, Stoa) again, we can re-examine the teleological conception of human nature as primarily instinctive and selfish, and say that human nature is constituted also by reason and that the instinctive nature is predisposed to be guided by reason or intellect. The constitutive order of the human soul, with the subordination of the instinct under the intellect, involves already some natural goodness, of which the intellect is aware (in the natural moral conscience) and for which the will strives (in a natural inclination). This is the basis for the "moral law" and for normative ethics. Thus, human nature is not selfish in itself. Although moral goodness as humankind’s perfection is an ideal, it has in us alrea dy imperfect natural beginnings, a "natural morality." In a certain sense, the moral ought of actions comes from one’s being, from the natural moral goodness of which the intellect is aware in itself, and from its good intentions. I. Problems of Foundation Seen historically, the foundation problems of ethical norms and normative ethics have been treated, in modern times, in two opposite directions, the empiricist and the rationalistic way. The former is characterized as the aposterioric way, taking the criterion of morality only from the result of experience — feelings of usefulness and happiness —, in contrast to the latter as aprioric, taking the criterion from a law of reason — universal human duties — foregoing to all experience. Kants’ ethics tried to superate the aposterioric ethics of the English empiricists, claiming, with the rationalists, a law of reason apriori, but in doing so he did not follow the way of pure rationalism. Rather he established his position as a combination of both directions, the empiricist and the rationalistic one. They form the so-called "material" and "formal" side of his ethics. The moral law of reason, the famous "categorical imperative", belongs to the formal side, whereas the objects of our actions are considered as "material", i.e. as objects of our sensitive desire or vital needs which can be given only in the field of sensible intuition. He denies with the empiricists any intellectual intuition and formulates the "paradox of method" (1) that no object or "good" can be the criterion a priori for morality, but only the categorical imperative, of which, if applied to actions, every object or good is a consequence.

Navistar Supply Management Essay

Executive Summary Navistar was a worldwide leader in the manufacturing medium and heavy trucks for 17 consecutive years in the North America market. Navistar’s premium conventional trucks were produced at the Chatham assembly plant, which had almost 14 years experience in producing Navistar’s premium line since 1983. Navistar had forecasted increased industry demand for heavy and medium trucks in 1998. Especially, the Chatham assembly plant’s customers had strict requirements to the truck’s quality and delivery date. As the assembly supervisor in Chatham, Andy Ramsz encountered the interior trim quality and delivery problem for the truck. Andy had begun to gather data on the interior trim supply problem and he got the crucial reasons for these problems occurred. These reasons absolutely affected the Navistar’s internal supply process, increased the extra cost as well as reduced the efficiency of the supply management. According to the reasons identified for the trim supply problem, my decision is to set up the improved procedure focused on problems identified and take plans to enhance efficiency and productiveness of trim supply chain so as to relieve the difficulty of shortage problem and meet customers’ requirement accurately. Issue Identification Navistar provides premium trucks that ranged in design from no frill models to highly customized units. Customers are able to select from customized units which represented 50-80 percent of production volumes. These customized units contained various options that formed kits that included anywhere from 18-26 individual trim pieces. Andy Ramsz, the Assembly Supervisor at Navistar’s Chatham facility has been experiencing an issue with interior trim shortages for Navistar’s premium conventional trucks. The shortage of parts and non compliance with delivery schedules did not allow plant assemblers to complete the interior of a truck. The delay in completing the truck affected the bottom line as the interruption in waiting for replacement parts caused additional time and money. Environmental Issue Navistar considered quality and on-time delivery as a priority that came before costs; therefore, various improvement initiatives to quality programs were supported by top management as well as initiatives to improve processes and on-time delivery. Andy is an Assembly Supervisor but had very broad job responsibilities. Andy’s time was taken up in areas such as supplier quality evaluations, internal process documentation, process improvement, and much more. His focus was very widespread and his day was drawn away from scheduled and unscheduled meetings; this position required long hours and weekend work. In addition to the quality issues, truck interior trim shortages was another challenge which resulted in reordering of trim parts leading to additional material handling, and post- assembly installation. These delayed parts required overtime that increased cost and delayed delivery of the finished truck to the customer. Issues came from both Navistar and their supplier Trimco. Navistar had design changes such as different sizes, repositioning of mechanisms and other various designer and material changes; however, these changes to the truck interiors were not communicated to Trimco before production runs were completed. As a result, parts were shipped with different specifications than those needed for proper fit during assembly. Due to the lack of coordination and communication, this caused hurdles to Navistar and Trimco’s just in time system where lead and delivery times were compressed. As a key supplier for Navistar, Trimco provided 420,000 parts annually to Navistar. Unfortunately, of these parts, approximately 3,100 were defective, missing or inappropriate for use. These 3100 parts were another financial burden and jeopardized customer service. Due to the lack of centralisation and limited computer systems capability, Trimco had difficulty monitoring outgoing parts for shipments sent to Navistar; inappropriate component of trim parts or insufficient quantities of the correct parts were supplied. Andy estimated that costs associated with the interior trim shortages were over $200,000 per year. The company was not being run efficiently and quality control was hindering the performance for Navistar. Furthermore, Trimco was QS9000 certified, but the quality control procedures varied throughout as the company lacked consistency. To make matters worse, Trimco also had high employee turnover which meant that employees were not  all properly trained and failed to understand the knowledge and specifications of customer requirements. Alternatives Alternative 1 Research and Source another reputable supplier to manufacture 30% of the customized trim parts – To improve financial situation and alleviate the shortage issue, Navistar can source out a portion of their customized parts to another supplier while maintaining the other 70% to Trimco. The new supplier will adhere to the specifications of Navistar’s customization requirements by going through training programs. Pros: Meet on-time delivery and reduce the number of shortages Creates more inventory and safety stock Could be less risky for Navistar as they don’t have all their eggs in one basket Another supplier puts pressure on Trimco as they could possibly lose more business, so they would hopefully improve their shortage issue Cons: High cost to source, train and implement quality processes with new supplier Separating parts can confuse Accounts Payable and payment, additional paperwork Purchasing power can decrease if inventory is split between multiple vendors No guarantee that delivery and quality will immediately fit to conformity Alternative 2 Navistar will work with Trimco to develop cross-organizational teams and partnerships to re-examine programs for product quality, training, processes and logistics. Exchanging information with Trimco and having open and effective communication to work on areas of concern externally and internally will help improve operations and business for the plant, Navistar and Trimco. Pros: Working with one another by sharing my resources will help both companies ind solutions and work more efficiently By collaborating ideas and using cross-organizational teams, companies can increase efficiencies and reduce costs Creates a strong and long relationship Potential to improve lead times Cons: High cost implementing and initiating programs Takes a long time to make changes Potential for lots of changes leading to possibility of turnover if employees do not like changes If not properly executed, could be confusing to employees Alternative 3 Decrease the customer’s design options. Decreasing design options and providing standard packages will reduce the numerous trim parts for production; this can possibly increase the appropriate shortage and delivery issue. Navistar provided customized units to satisfy different customers’ requirements; customers should change the design before the production runs, which often resulted in the failure of communication to the supplier for the change, and inappropriate trim provided, or delivery delay. Pros: Standardize the â€Å"kits† form for the interior trim to increase the appropriate delivery and installation procedure. More efficient to organize production and procure trim parts. Convenient for supplier to produce trim parts and arrange the stock and inventory. Cons: Navistar may lose the market shares without the specific feature and attracting styling. Recommendation Alternative 2 – Navistar will work with Trimco to develop cross-organizational teams and partnerships to re-examine programs for product quality, training, processes and logistics. Working together with Trimco and reviewing internal processes will help Navistar rectify the trim shortage issue. Even though both companies have quality management systems and programs, a revised quality program should be cooperatively put together to increase efficiency. A Quality Representative from each organization should be placed in the other company to check on conformity, quality and completion of kits. With the help of Trimco, Navistar can create a workbook for inspection procedures for incoming kits and Trimco will have a procedure to follow for kits going outbound. The inspection will have a review checklist that examines the kits as they come in/out; if there are missing parts, they should be documented immediately. Incoming shipments with part shortages that are taken from another kit will be required to be documented and ordered. Trimco will also upgrade their computer system and enhance the centralization to monitor outgoing parts. Trimco had difficulty responding to Navistar’s design changes. Navistar will need to implement a new process to allow increase in lead time for new design changes and communicate changes to the Trimco’s design and manufacturing department. Once Navistar receives confirmation from Trimco they can expect to receive the correct trims with the correct design changes. There has been high turnover at Trimco and training employees has not been up to par. Trimco will need to work with Navistar to create a program for product quality and control than develop a manual for process and development. It will be beneficial for Navistar to help Trimco with a program and manual as this will help hold their employees to compliance standards. The manual will be a reference and include quality planning activities and controls that document the manufacture of Navistar products. Navistar has internal challenges that can be changed to help with the quality and logistics. Andy was given too many responsibilities and his focus was widespread, some of his responsibilities should be the responsibility of managers. Creating some time for Andy will allow him to focus on his core responsibilities and look to programs on continuous improvement. Allowing Andy to have free time will help as he should figure out that providing a  forecast to Trimco will more preparation for parts. The plant at Chatham should try and lean out duplicate processes and perhaps change the order in which the trim assembly took place. The trim was placed into the cab than the cab placed onto the chassis. The cab isn’t dependent on whether the trim assembly is in place; therefore, if trims were added further down the line it would provide more lead time for orders. Implementation Plan Navistar will need to assess internal process and to work with Trimco’s manufacturing department to improve their quality control and process. 1-4 Months: Navistar and Trimco will need to select a Quality Representative and train them on the requirements and specifications for the customized products. Quality representatives and the Manager of Manufacturing at Trimco will help develop a training process and combine that knowledge into Training Manuals to help train current and future Trimco employees. Navistar will provide forecasting tools and reports and review with Trimco to determine mutual understanding of the documents. Trimco will upgrade their computer systems so that monitoring of outgoing parts will be more accurate. 5-6 Months – Quality and consistency will be rigorously inspected and tested to ensure that they meet the quality standards. Navistar will set up KPI to the supplier to determine quality and performance and will be audited. Trimco will have the forecast so they should have safety stock based on the Navistar’s forecast Monitor and Control Navistar will need to examine the success of the implementation process; the training of staff, and shortages of trim parts will be assessed. The staff should be tested during the first month to see that they are comfortable and understand all the requirements for Navistar. Also, monitoring the Tricmo to see if they are using the forecast to meet production levels should be assessed monthly. Navistar will need to set KPIs and notified when quotas aren’t being met as this could be an indication of inefficiency. Areas in operations such as production level, turnaround time, disruptions, and flexibility for change would be taken as key performance measurements. Audit KPI Monthly Notes – Issues *Shortage of trim parts to Navistar Notes – Environmental Interior cut back Quality and Delivery Problem * Missing or Inappropriate trim parts. This resulted in: * Reordering of parts * Additional Material Handling * Post aggregation Installation that needed overtime ($42 per hour) * Eventually decease to a delay in delivery * Typical truck contains 18-26 individualist trims costing $630-$770 * Andy estimated that trim part shortages cost the company $200,000 annually *Slowing down the line due to reordering of parts, extra time and money in material handling, post assembly installation and HR management Trimco Industries * Supplied over 450 parts in 5 different colours and 3 different trim levels * Trimco sent about 420,000 units a course of which about 3100 were defective (0. Some processes within their facility were passing automated while some were manual * Used Quality visit Techniques Statistical Process Control (SPC), Manual Inspection and heel over Production. * Due to lack of centralisation and limited computer governance capability * Difficulty in Monitoring Outgoing Parts * Sent shipments with contradictory parts or incorrect quantities * High Attrition rate leading to employees with poor level of training, hence some employees were insensible of customer requirements * The company had difficulty responding to certain design changes. * At times these design changes were not sent by Navistar forward production runs and hence parts Notes – Alternatives 1 – Source another vendor 30% of trim parts Pros: Meet on-time delivery and reduce the number of shortages Creates more inventory and safety stock Could be less risky for Navistar as they don’t have all their eggs in one basket Another supplier puts pressure on Trimco as they could possibly lose more business, so they would hopefully improve their shortage issue Cons: High cost to source, train and implement quality processes with new supplier Separating parts can confuse Accounts Payable and payment, additional paperwork Purchasing power can decrease if inventory is split between multiple vendors No guarantee that delivery and quality will immediately fit to conformity 2 – Collaborate with Trimco for improvement Pros: Working with one another by sharing my resources will help both companies find solutions and work more efficiently By collaborating ideas and using cross-organizational teams, companies can increase efficiencies and reduce costs Creates a strong and long relationship Cons: High cost implementing and initiating programs Takes a long time to make changes Potential for lots of changes leading to possibility of turnover if employees do not like changes If not properly executed, could be confusing to employees 3 – decrease customization option Pros: Standardize the â€Å"kits† form for the interior trim to increase the appropriate delivery and installation procedure. More efficient to organize production and procure trim parts. Convenient for supplier to produce trim parts and arrange the stock and inventory. Cons: Navistar may lose the market shares without the specific feature and attracting styling. Notes – Recommendation *Monitor supplier performance *How to get the QA dept’s aligned between the companies? 1. Navistar – supply chain division restructuring on a strategic level b. Andy’s responsibilities to be shared between new subdivisions/departments taking away some of his current functions (e.g. internal documentation and material management) c. Logistics audit/review to be implemented by external company to set new procedures particularly for parts flow 2. Chatham plant – reorganization of assembly a. To review assembly process and redesign production steps for smooth and consistent move of the truck to decrease customization level and shorten production lead time b. Interior trim process flow – reduce/eliminate NVA steps through c. Increase communication efficiency with Trimco to send proper and in time data for last minute changes/redesign 3. Trimco – tighter collaboration to help them produce quality a. Involve Trimco in logistics audit c. Eliminate double processes taking place both in Chatham plant and Trimco warehouse (e.g. trim kit assembly) Notes – Implementation Navistar implementation: Action Item | Type | Term | Responsible | Duration | Status | Prepare the forecast for the trim part by month | Tactical | Short | Dealer & marketing department & procurement department | 3 month | Not started | Take the liability for the safety stock with supplier | Tactical | Short Long | Procurement department | 3 months – 6 months | Not started | Set up KPI to the supplier for the performance audit | Tactical | Short & Long | Procurement Department & production Department | 1 month | Not started | Trimco implementation: Action Item | Type | Term | Responsible | Duration | Status | Upgrade computer system and enhance the centralization | Tactical & Strategic | Long and short | IT department | 6 months or more | Not started | Arrange the appropriate training to the employee | Tactical | Long and Short | Top management & HR department & production department | 3 month | Not started | Have the safety stock based on the Navistar’s forecast | Tactical | Short & Middle | Production department | 3 months | Not started | Set up the quality traceability regulation for the quality control | Tactical | short | Production department & QC department | 1 month | Not started | Notes – Monitor and Control Element | Evaluation | # | Description | Measure | Success | Failure | 1. | Recommend best- selling configuration | Got the selling data | Accurate and detailed | Inaccurate and non-detailed | 2. | Forecast form and accuracy | accuracy | Accuracy >=80% | Accuracy =85% | Accuracy =85% | Accuracy

A Doll s House By Henrik Ibsen - 1216 Words

Throughout â€Å"A Doll’s House,† Ibsen introduces multiple varying levels of freedom between his characters. Each character has strict restrictions on the freedom they experience throughout the play and these are a direct result from their environmental circumstances. The most obvious difference in freedom stems from gender roles and the freedom a man may experience verse a woman’s allowed freedom. Other factors affecting different characters freedom come from criminal circumstances affecting how a character must behave and limited options due to unfortunate forced circumstances verses a character’s perceived viable options due to social pressure. There is not a single character in â€Å"A Doll’s House† who is lucky enough to experience true†¦show more content†¦Luckily enough for Nora, Kristine is able to convince Krogstead to not follow through with his blackmailing of Torvald by expressing how she is lonely and empty and aski ng him to â€Å"give [her] something, Nils. Give [her] someone to work for.† (78) Unfortunately, it was too late for Krogstead to get his letter back from Torvald; he was bound to read it. Torvald responds to the news exactly the way a man of his time like Torvald is expected to respond – he’s furious. He yells at Nora about how she cannot do anything right and how she would not be allowed to raise their children. Directly after his outburst, he reads a second letter from Krogstead saying how he will no longer be blackmailing Torvald – and his mood almost immediately goes from angry brute to caring husband. He is now convinced that Nora’s misconceived actions were out of love and that it was not her fault because she did not know the serious circumstances she has put herself in. This was exactly when Nora realized how superficial her idea of freedom has been up to this point. After the way Torvald reacted to both of the letters Nora knows that to Torvald she is nothing but a doll – just someone to prop him up. 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Luckily Nora’s father left her enough money that Torvald and Nora could go on a life saving trip to Italy. But the truth comes out when we find out Nora’s father did not leave her a penny. We find out that Nora got a hold of the money through a loan but she signed

Organizational Behavior Motivation, Values,...

Throughout the decades, organizational Behaviour has played a very important role in the organization’s success. It is a diagnostic study that focuses on teams, motivation, values, relationships and individual goals. As society has been rapidly changing, organizations have had to adapt its own culture for its survival. I believe understanding organizational behaviour has helped a lot of companies to stay successful in their respective market and helped them to evolve the way they approach and treat their employees. As an organization, realizing the employees are integral to the success of the company as well as communicating the success they achieved will help the organization to build employee’s motivation, and loyalty which have a†¦show more content†¦When a manager empowers an employee, it helps the employee stay engaged in the job, and developing the future leader of the organization. As a leader, creating an environment where employees feel comfortable, pr oductive, empowered, and happy should be one of the most important goals to achieve. Empowering an employee may sound simple, but it is not easy to do. Many neuroscience experiments have been done over the last decade and they all have similar patterns of approaching employee empowerment. As long as managers understand how important open communication, supporting employee’s independence, setting clear expectations, encouraging failure and providing feedback, I strongly believe any managers can empower their employees which will bring the success both individually and organizationally. I also strongly believe empowering the employees will enhance employee’s sense of self-sufficiency, happiness and motivation (Waytz ). Furthermore, the organizations can improve productivity through this motivation by creating an environment of accomplishment and inclusiveness, in addition to that, it can increase productivity through better decision making by identifying the problems. ( Kleiman) First of all, any managers can empower their direct reports through having an open communication (Daum). This is a start point of building the relationship and trust.

Title What does personalised learning mean in practice...

Assignment TM1 Title: What does personalised learning mean in practice? Analyse the learning needs of EAL pupils, and those of SEN pupils. Discuss how the needs you identify can be met most effectively in subject teaching. Within this context over the past ten years’ the term ‘personalised learning’ gained political capital and could be considered as a defining feature of the UK’s educational system. (Miliband 2004) Personalised learning – theory and practice The Sussex report states personalised learning is ‘characterised by high levels of participation of pupils and staff in the schools, learning to learn and pupil voice’. It is a continuous progress which facilitates a ‘deeper learning’. (University of Sussex, 2007).†¦show more content†¦According to Williams (2009) the effectiveness of formative assessments can generate nearly three terms extra learning per year. However Ofsted reviews have identified teachers’ difficulties in identifying clear learning objectives and outcomes by the use of attainment levels to inform structured lesson planning and assessment (Ofsted, 2007). For example in my second placement school I asked a mixed ability group of year 7’s to assess sentence exemplars and explained the success criteria based on Bloom’s taxonomy. This showed what was expected to answer higher order questions and levelled answers. It was difficult at first however as soon as the y got accustomed to my expectations a marked improved was identified in their work. They were able to interpret the differences properly and with scaffolding the majority of them were able to vastly develop their answers. (See appendix 1) When considering Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence, personalisation leans towards the understanding and application of different learning styles, namely audio-visual, and kinaesthetic. However Coffield et al (2004) suggest that the effectiveness of this focus is varied, in terms of their reliability and as a motivator for learning. Placing the learner at the heart of the teaching process and in turn enabling them to take more responsibility for their learning can also be delivered through developing learning objectives reflective of individual and classroom

The Rise of the Aztec Empire Free Essays

The Rise of the Aztec Empire Aztec empire was one the most successful empire during the 14th and 15th centuries it is said to be the most lucrative and powerful Mesoamerican kingdoms at that time. The Aztec community began in the middle of a lake but later became the capital of an empire. Aztec was consisting of a diversity ethic group that lived in the area which stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf coast. We will write a custom essay sample on The Rise of the Aztec Empire or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Rise of the Aztec Empire and its aptitude to be so successful and powerful dominance and their quest was founded on their religious beliefs that were embedded within everyone. These teaching drove them to conquest, to develop regions and building into temples. The Aztecs also called themselves, the Mexicans, but rose to power in a very short time as they searched for their promise land. The cities trade, agriculture, religion and societies were one of the major factors in the ability to survive and build a strong foundation for their leadership and livelihood. During the fall of the Teotihuacan and the Mayan civilization was full of grate expectation in every aspect. This is said to be one of the most advanced group of ancient American as they proved the system of the calendar and the system writing. History reiterated that the Aztec came from the north which is called Aztian. The Aztecs built their city of Tenochtitlan on the site, which is now located in the center of Mexico. The Aztecs Empire comprised of two social classes. The lower classes were called Macehalli and the upper classes were called Pilli. These social classes were not defined by birth because a person could rise of the Pilli if they had great skills. All male children in the Aztec Empire were called Telpachalli. The women regard as subordinate to their man. Above everything else, they were required to behave with sexual abstinence and high moral. The religion of the Aztecs was very in distance downwards which was partially due to the fact that they had inherited many religious beliefs from people they previously conquered. The Aztecs believed that the sun and the earth had been destroyed in a cataclysm and recreated four times. The Aztec laws were simple be harsh. They were very few times that result of a crime resulting from adultery to stealing was not punished by death. Other major offences were handling by the courts. In 1426, the old ruler Tezozomoc died and was replaced by his son Maxlatzin. He was fretful that the Aztecs had been growing too strong under the Tepanec’s protection. He therefore sought to reduce the Aztec’s power in 1427. At this time, the Aztec’s third king died and was replaced by Itzcoatl, who chose Tlacaelel, a brilliant military strategist, as his chief adviser. The two of them decided to resist and fight rather than submit to Maxlatzin’s threats and pressure. Within a year, the Aztecs had crushed the Tepanec and destroyed their imperial city. So now the Aztec had become the greatest state in Mexico. How to cite The Rise of the Aztec Empire, Papers

Denver baggage system free essay sample

Analysis of the Denver International Airport baggage system Michael Schloh Dan Stearns, advisor Title Abstract Contents Introduction Reasons For Automation Functionality Of Original BAE Design Problems and Solutions System Complexity Comparative Functionality Opening Delays Financial Hardship Summary Glossary References THE DENVER INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT AUTOMATED BAGGAGE HANDLING SYSTEM by Michael Schloh Computer Science Department School of Engineering California Polytechnic State University 1996 Date Submitted: February 16, 1996 Advisor: Daniel Stearns ABSTRACT This document discusses events at the new Denver International Airport that resulted in opening delays of the airport. The scope is limited to the automated baggage handling system, which was the primary source of failure warranting the airports several opening delays. Analysis of the failing system is comprehensive. Research is conducted using a variety of sources. The final report is published on the worldwide web. CONTENTS Introduction 1 Reasons For Automation 2 Functionality Of Original BAE Design 3 Problems and Solutions 6 System Complexity 12 Comparative Functionality 14 Opening Delays 15 Financial Hardship 17 Summary 19 Glossary 20 References 21 INTRODUCTION This research concerns the automated baggage handling system which was built by BAE Automated Systems, Incorporated of Carrollton, Texas for the Denver International Airport. The analysis of this system provides an important topic of study. From the baggage systems failure, principles of computer systems were clarified and many lessons were learned or relearned by those involved in the BAE project. While there are a variety of issues to learn from the many operations in the construction of the Denver International Airport, focus is placed on the baggage system itself. Some less relevant chapters serve to inform the reader of the occurrences that were influencing the timing and financial properties of the baggage system work as it was built. Reasons For Automation begins by describing how it was decided that Denver International Airport would have an automated baggage handling system. A short review of the history of Denver International Airport in its planning stage illustrates the options that Denver had to choose from. Functionality Of Original BAE Design describes how the baggage system was intended to work. It is a detailed explanation of what makes the system work. Here, parts of computer machinery are itemized, and specifications are explained. Problems and Solutions is the largest chapter and describes what went wrong, and how the problems were solved. This chapter includes descriptions of mistakes made in both the design and construction of the system. Obvious problems such as paint covered optical scanners are explained. Less understandable problems such as the puzzling line balancing problem receive attention. Problems with scheduling and complexity are quickly reviewed, since both topics receive chapters of their own later in the report. System Complexity was likely the predominant cause of the baggage systems failure. Surely many current control and information systems projects in the design phase could be simplified at great benefit to the construction and maintenance of them. The BAE designs failure provides more than enough incentive for other engineers to redesign or simplify a complex design when success of the whole system is at stake. Present industrial trends are horrific. By some estimates, 75 percent of all information systems projects are plagued with quality problems, and only 1 percent of them are completed on time. Comparative Functionality explains how the baggage system really worked when the Denver International Airport finally opened on February 28, 1995. Needless to say, its performance was quite different from what the systems original specification called for. This chapter, in a sense, is a dream versus reality comparison. Opening Delays tells how the project schedule was affected by the profound complexity of the design. The confusion resulted in a prolonged testing phase, reducing the process to solving by trial and error. Systems analysts and engineers hacked together solutions as they went. This unappealing course did the job at the expense of time. Financial Hardship describes the way that the airport was initially funded and the direction of its financing after problems and delays affected its credit. This chapter explains what the city of Denver and airlines did to account for budget deficits and cost overruns. Summary concludes the study with a review of the lessons learned, and how they can be constructive in avoiding similar failures or even worse, larger failures of catastrophic magnitude. REASONS FOR AUTOMATION United Airlines Request Early in the planning stage, United Airlines insisted on an automated high speed baggage system, like the one it operates in San Francisco. After some consideration, Denver agreed that not only would United have an automated high speed baggage handling system, but so would the rest of the airports three concourses. Denver officials had sound reasoning in choosing to install an automated baggage handling system. Before deciding on buying an airport-wide system, Denver officials had previously assumed that each airline would design their own system, according to its own needs. When the airlines failed to produce their own designs, Denver investigated the option of buying a system to service all airlines in a unified manner. When the planners considered a traditional manual baggage handling system using tugs and carts, it appeared to be inadequate for a few reasons. Moving baggage by the traditional system is a labor intensive and expensive process. The tugs are diesel powered and would not have been able to travel through the poorly ventilated underground tunnels due to the high volume of diesel exhaust that would have choked the tug drivers and other workers. Even if ventilation had been installed, the heavy volume of large tugs and carts would have jammed the small tunnels as they passed each other or turned corners. Long Distances An additional concern involved spanning the great distances of the airport. At the Denver International Airport, distance and speed of delivery have especially significant importance because the distances between passengers, planes, gates, ticket counters, concourses, and the terminal are much larger than at other airports. The closest concourse, concourse A, is 1,300 feet away from the passenger terminal. The farthest, concourse C, is a full mile from the terminal. Concourse B itself is . 7 miles long. To keep flights on schedule, speed becomes critical in moving baggage. Furthermore, across such great distances the only direct route for baggage moving is through the underground tunnels, which are incapable of accommodating gas-powered tugs. Taking baggage on tug and cart by route of the runway aprons could take as long as fifty minutes, thereby missing most flights. Glenn Rifkin states, For an airport this size, a conventional baggage system simply wouldnt work. Increased Profits For Airlines The airlines were as disappointed as the city in a traditional manual system. In general, airlines maximize their profits by keeping their planes airborne, not grounded and waiting for baggage. United knows this too well after enduring some of the worst gridlock and bottlenecking in the nation at Denvers Stapleton International Airport. Stapleton frequently ranked fiftieth out of fifty airports rated for on time performance according to Briggs Gamblin, a spokesman for Mayor Webb. United accordingly sought to keep their airplanes in flight and on time by insisting on an automated system in the construction of the new airport. Denver began researching the possibility of an airport-wide automated system, and with BAEs help, planned such a system and sent it to bid. FUNCTIONALITY OF ORIGINAL BAE DESIGN Savior Of Modern Flying When the automated baggage system design for the Denver International Airport was introduced, it was hailed as the savior of modern airport design. Designed by BAE Automated Systems of Carrollton, Texas (previously Boeing Airport Equipment), it allows airport planners to design airports of larger size, using narrow corridors and tunnels for baggage where no tug and cart system can run. Furthermore, it requires none of the manual labor personnel, and can be used as easily in pinpointing the location of baggage as in moving it. The design truly fits its description as the worlds most advanced baggage handling system. It is intended to run faster and more reliable than traditional technology. Its automation is so thorough, that in most cases, baggage offloaded from an aircraft doesnt see a human until it meets with its owner at the baggage claim. The systems speed outperforms even the airports high speed trains. Flyers never have to hover around the baggage terminal waiting for their baggage as with traditional systems, because their baggage arrives at the claim before they do. On departure, their baggage arrives at the aircraft before they do. Other Automated Baggage Systems While the automated baggage system design of Denver International Airport is unique in complexity, technology, and capacity, it is not the worlds first such system. The three other airports that have such systems are San Francisco International Airport, Rhein-Main International Airport in Frankfurt, and Franz Joseph Strauss Airport in Munich. The major distinctions that separate Denvers design are size and complexity. While Denvers design is integrated to sort baggage from all airlines throughout the whole airport and deliver over a thousand bags per minute, the other airports use systems that are localized to much smaller baggage loops and offer less capacity. San Franciscos system is ten times smaller and handles fourteen times less in speed and capacity. The system in Frankfurt runs on trays and conveyor belts rather than Denvers high speed telecars and is three times smaller in size. Munichs automated design is similar to Denvers but far less complex. High Speed Denvers baggage system design calls for replacing the traditional slow conveyor belts with telecars that roll freely on underground tracks at more than three times the speed. A telecar that is loading baggage rolls at 4. 5 miles per hour. A telecar that is unloading its baggage rolls at 8. 5 miles per hour. A telecar in transit rolls at a fast 19 miles per hour. Each track can handle 60 telecars per minute. It is the combination of using Denver International Airports underground tunnel network and swift speeds that allows all baggage to move between any concourse and the airport terminal in less than nine minutes. In Uniteds concourse B, transfer baggage moves between any two gates in under six minutes. According to Briggs Gamblin, a spokesman for Denver Mayor Wellington Webb, the systems high speed nature is intended to shave minutes off the turnaround time of each arriving or departing flight. Components The BAE design includes a number of high-tech components. It calls for 300 486-class computers distributed in eight control rooms, a Raima Corp. database running on a Netframe Systems fault-tolerant NF250 server, a high-speed fiber-optic ethernet network, 14 million feet of wiring, 56 laser arrays, 400 frequency readers, 22 miles of track, 6 miles of conveyor belts, 3,100 standard telecars, 450 oversized telecars, 10,000 motors, and 92 PLCs to control motors and track switches. With so much equipment serving such a large area, the Denver International Airports baggage system is the worlds largest. This project is of the same magnitude as the Panama Canal or the English Channel Tunnel, said Mayor Webb. The systems total cost is $193 million dollars. Baggage Handling Process Because of the revolutionary automated baggage system, the process of handling baggage is unique at Denver International Airport. At check-in, agents stick glue-backed bar code labels on baggage, identifying the bags owner, flight number, final destination, and intermediate connections and airlines. Instead of printed bar code tags, Uniteds portion of the system uses photocells that serve the same purpose. The check-in agent then puts the bag on a conveyor belt. Since no baggage can move without a telecar holding it, a system exists for dealing with telecar allocation. Empty car management software is the heart of the allocation system, dispatching empty telecars to where the tracking computers anticipate they will be needed. The computers sense changes in demand by measuring the flow of passengers throughout the airport. During peak times, all 3,550 telecars are available for moving baggage. When an empty telecar arrives, the conveyor belt holding the bag advances. Then a type of high-speed luggage bowling machine flings the bag at a T-intersection just as the telecar moves by, catching the bag in its fiberglass tray. Each telecar has a tray for this purpose that tilts into three positions for automatically loading, carrying, and unloading its baggage. In Denver International Airports system, telecars do not stop for loading or unloading, they only slow. This type of Dynamic loading increases handling capacity and saves energy as well. Before the telecar speeds away, a laser scanner similar to those used in grocery stores reads the bar code tag on the bags handle and associates the bag with its telecar. These laser scanners are triggered by photo-electric sensors that detect a telecars presence. Telecars pass photo-electric sensors every 150 to 200 feet of track. The computer that scans the bar code tags then sends information to a BAE sortation computer that translates it by using a look up table to match the flight number with the appropriate gate. A tracking computer guides the telecar to its destination by communicating with the hockey puck-sized radio transponders mounted on the side of each telecar. The telecars are able to move on the tracks by linear induction motors, or LIMs, which are mounted periodically on the tracks, and push the telecars along. A metal fin on the bottom of each telecar slides through each induction motor gaining impulse as it goes. Telecars merge with other telecar traffic and exit to unload stations by computers which control PLCs, or programmable logic controllers. The computer tracking a specific telecar directs it by communicating with PLCs that are responsible for causing track switches. Tracking Baggage As the telecars roll, the tracking computers monitor each of the systems thousands of radio transponderswhich emit millions of messages per second. The computers must also track all gate assignments so that the telecars can be re-routed if a change is made. The tracking computers can also re-route bags to special inspection stations, including one that is bomb proof. The same computers must keep track of obstructions or failures as well, so that telecars can automatically detour around a stalled vehicle or jammed track. Oversized Baggage In addition to standard-sized baggage, the system can also accommodate nonstandard-sized baggage on oversized telecars that measure 6. 5 feet long by 4 feet wide. The oversized telecars are essentially double-length standard telecars. They are meant for non-standard size baggage which in Denver typically tends to be skis and golf bags. The oversized telecars navigate through twists, turns, and switches the same way the standard telecars do. Security Impressingly, the system can work in full capacity for 18 hours every day at a 99. 5 percent efficiency rate. Two counter-circulating closed-loop tracks with multiple routing connections provide for future expansion and add redundancy to guard against unanticipated problems. To protect against malice that could theoretically shut down the whole airport by halting the flow of baggage, tight computer security is built into the baggage system. The system has strict access privileges for workers, and its command center is well guarded and locked behind steel doors. Despite BAEs conflicting advice, the entire automated baggage system is run by DIAs information systems staff of 18 employees, according to Ivan Drinks, director of MIS for both Stapleton and Denver International Airport. Object-Oriented Architecture Fortunately, the automated baggage handling system illustrates the principle of object oriented design beautifully. It sends messages to objects (the telecars), which respond by returning other objects (baggage and empty telecars) to the sender. Its real-time software was programmed in OS/2 and intended to run on OS/2 version 2. 0. Decentralized computing allows the baggage system to operate independently of the airports information systems department. The only dependence within the system involves coordination with the airlines flight reservation and information systems. PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS Denvers Baggage Problems The Denver International Airports automated baggage system experienced such horrific problems that most with an opinion on the matter are thrilled to elaborate on their sense of what went wrong. It seemed that what could go wrong, did go wrong. Even the signs directing passengers to the baggage claim led to a concrete wall. Unfortunately, analyzing the true nature of the systems faults is not an easy task. Problems were so widespread, that possibly no small number of reasons can alone account for the chaotic performance in the systems early testing. Insight can be found in examining the accounts of some key people who were involved in the baggage project. Expert Opinions In response to criticism after the third opening delay, BAE president Gene DiFonso explained, We simply ran out of test time because of changes requested by the airlines, problems working around other vendors, and failures in the airports electrical power supply. Denver aviation director James C. DeLong maintained that baggage software glitches and electrical supply harmonics were late and unexpected obstacles to opening the Denver International Airport. According to David Hughes of Aviation Week Space Technology, contributing factors to the baggage systems problems included concrete mechanical, electrical, and software flaws. William B. Scott of Aviation Week Space Technology believed that the systems troubles originated in more fundamental miscalculations such as overall system complexity, underestimation of tasks, a steady stream of changes requested by both airline and Denver officials, and politics. Politics Political issues were a surprising obstacle in the progress of the automated baggage system design and installation. George Rolf, an urban planning professor from the University of Washington, said that publicly run projects like Denver International Airport encounter problems because you have two distinct processes going on, one political and the other technical, and they have little to do with one another. One example of this claim is Denvers refusal to award the job of operating the baggage system to BAE, the only company that well understood it. The basis of this decision revolved around political but impractical ideals. Essentially, Denver officials suspected that BAE would not hire enough minorities and women, although BAE said they would. Richard Woodbury wrote, In the wake of political infighting over who should get the lucrative contract, it went to an outsider, Aircraft Service International of Miami, which has had to race to fathom the system in a few months. A Denver insider declared, It was raw greed. Everyone wanted a piece of the contract moneys. The city lost control at the outset, and the project was destined to run amuck. Further political problems ran through the entire Denver International Airport construction in the presence of rhetoric and false assurances to the bond market. Some of the statements made by Denver in defense of construction delays and practices bordered the lines of legality. Mike Boyd, an analyst who heads Aviation Systems Research Corporation in Golden, Colorado said, This is an airport built for politicians, not for airlines. When you look at the numbers and what theyre telling bond houses, it is absolutely shocking. None of the significant numbers that the city has been putting out since the airport was started have held true. Other political troubles included Denvers alleged falsifying of temporary certificates of occupancy (TCOs) in the midst of the baggage system crisis to appease the airlines, and a lawsuit with the Park Hill Neighborhood Association barring a partial airport opening. Consequently, in January of 1994, both the Justice Department and the Securities and Exchange Commission subpoenaed key Denver International Airport documents. In February of 1994, the U. S. attorneys office sent investigators to Denver to interview city officials and probe into alleged wrongdoings. In August of 1994, a federal grand jury began investigating the Denver International Airport for fraudulent contracting, trading, testing, and construction financing practices. In late October of 1994, a congressional auditing agency became involved in Denver International Airports financial woes. The General Accounting Office (GAO) reported that despite Denvers delays and losses, the citys chances of avoiding default were good. Technologically Advanced The BAE design is technologically advanced. According to Richard de Neufville, it is not the next generation of baggage system, it is more like a jump from third to fifth or sixth generation. Unfortunately, BAE misused its technological advantage by expecting spectacular performance from the system components, and not allowing them a proper margin of error. The components were expected to perform to their highest theoretical capabilities. Bruce Van Zandt, operations manager for the backbone communications network at Denver International Airport stated, The system pushed the envelope of technology. The components that were put into the system were run right to the limit of what they were designed for. When any of the components failed in this respect, others failed as well due to the systems inherently tight coupling. Planning BAE, DiFonso said, was originally contracted by United in the fall of 1991 to build a baggage system specifically for United Airlines at the new Denver International Airport. The airline, he said, was concerned that after several years into the project, the city still had not contracted for a baggage system. Indeed, Denvers baggage system design was an afterthought to the construction of the airport. The BAE system was detailed well after construction of Denver International Airport had begun. When construction of the automated baggage system finally began, problems arose due to the constraints of the buildings and structures which would contain the baggage systems tracks and other components. Unfortunately, the system had to fit into the underground tunnels and available space given the challenging and unrelated Denver International Airport construction plans. Tight geometry resulted in additional construction difficulties. Telecars had to make unreasonably sharp turns on tracks shoehorned into corners at considerable inconvenience. According to Bernie Knill, an obvious solution to such poor planning techniques entails designing the baggage handling system with the building, and installing the system as the surrounding structure is being built. Schedule BAE officials said that a timetable for the opening of the airport was never realistic and should have taken potential problems into account. When asked about the ambitious timeline, one BAE official responded, We knew that was not long enough and we said so. Its a job that ought to take twice as long. While the media hammered BAE for their role in the delays, BAE vice president of engineering Ralph Doughty voiced his frustration. Its a 3-4 year job we were asked to do in 2 years, he said. Denver Aviation Director James C. DeLong offered the explanation, We had a project that should have taken seven years and we tried to do it in four years. We just misjudged. Well probably do it in five. As the project fell more and more behind, human error became a factor due to a more truncated training and testing period. Requirements Modifications and Other Changes When BAE accepted the job, no changes to the project were anticipated, DiFonso said. However, once BAEs work had begun, Denver officials often altered plans and timetables without consulting either the airlines or BAE. Even worse, when changes were made to one part of the system, it was not clearly understood how the changes would affect the system as a whole. To reduce its construction costs, United decided to remove an entire loop from its own ambitious design for concourse B. Rather than two complete loops of track, United wanted just one. This change shaved $20 million off the systems price, but required a complicated and untimely redesign. Other changes were made such as relocation of outside stations, addition of a mezzanine baggage platform, and Continentals request for a larger baggage link. As the project matured, it grew in size and complexity. Design changes increased the systems technical difficulties that consistently hampered progress. When BAE learned that the centralized systems faults ran through the rest of its tightly coupled subsystems, they chose to decentralize all of the tracking and sorting computers. Such major design changes deserved review of alternate courses. However, due to the condensed development and testing schedule, on the fly design changes that typically require major design alterations were treated with minor patchwork Chaos The first time that BAE ran the baggage system for performance testing, the resulting chaos was sobering. In March of 1994, the installation staff ran the BAE system for several media groups. Faults throughout the entire baggage system destroyed bags and flung suitcases out of telecars. The next day, phrases like bags were literally chewed up, and clothing and other personal belongings flying through the air hit newspapers. Telecars jumped tracks and crashed into each other. Suitcases went flying like popcorn kernels, some of them breaking in half, spewing underwear in every direction. When the telecars crashed into one another they bent rails and disgorged clothing from suitcases. Others jammed or mysteriously failed to appear when summoned. Telecars crashed into each other especially frequently at intersections. Many dumped their baggage off at the wrong place. Some telecars became jammed by the very clothing they were carrying. As the telecars flung their bags off or ripped them open, the clothing clogged the telecar rails, halting traffic and crashing other telecars in back. Most telecars holding bags with unreadable bar codes were routed to holding stations. Other telecars that knew were they were going collided with telecars that couldnt remember. On May 2, 1994, DiFonso addressed the situation, and stated that the system was not malfunctioning, it just hadnt been fully tested yet. BAE officials blamed the mutilation and other problems not on a defective design, but on software glitches, and mechanical failures. They found one reason for baggage mutilation involved the airport personnel. When workers placed bags on the conveyor belts upright, the system frequently jammed or shredded the bags. When the bags were placed correctly, laying flat, the performance improved. BAE found many design culprits and appropriately made changes. Slowly, BAE improved the systems general performance. Unfortunately, in August of 1994, the systems performance was still poor. Even during planning of the alternative tug and cart baggage system, telecars continued to collide and fall off their tracks. In late August, Glen Rifkin of Forbes wrote, Throughout the day, workers are seen unclogging tracks lined with bags that have been cut in half. Morale was low among the installation crew. When asked how the test bags were damaged, one worker replied in mock horror, Its not eatin bags. A truck ran over these outside. Software Ginger Evans, director of engineering for Denver International Airport, claimed that BAE didnt pay enough attention to the programming issues early enough in the design process. She believed that alleged troubles with building access or mechanical issues werent the problem. Its that the programming is not done, she said. She faults BAE for this inadequacy. Others contend that many problems of mechanical nature originated in the buggy software. According to Glenn Rifkin of Forbes, software sent out carts too early or too late. Robert L. Scheier of PC Week alleged that it was the systems software problems that resulted in the airports 3,550 baggage telecars crashing into each other or becoming stranded along its 22 miles of track. BAE president Gene DiFonso contested allegations of faulty software playing the central role in the systems horrific performance by stating that Software was not the major problem. It was an electromechanical problem. The system was stutter-stepping because the electromechanical side wasnt fully up to the softwares capability. However, DiFonso admitted that program code had been a nightmare at times. He revealed that the burden of writing code for establishing and maintaining communication with the airlines reservation systems was heavy. Particularly challenging was the duty of connecting with Uniteds Apollo reservation computers. A definite element in the disarray of the communication software was the process of language translation, since BAEs computers had to converse in the same software language as of each airline. Such translation work is painstaking and often laden with bugs. While writing code for the communication, tracking, and other numerous applications, the software grew more complicated. As a consequence, the code completion agenda experienced the threat of becoming unmanageable due to escalating levels of complexity. By principle, as program code grows in complexity, it becomes increasingly hard to track or understand (see Complexity Of the System). Instances of systems code delaying the opening of large projects abound. For example, the English Channel Tunnel was delayed for about a year by problems with more than three million lines of code. Only adding to confusion, applications of such size typically borrow from a number of object code libraries and other resources. As Bjarne Strousoup noted in 1987, No major program is ever written in the programming language as described in its basic language manual. Libraries of all sorts are used and often determine the structure of the program. Finding the origin of a glitch can consequently be nearly impossible. A giant project held hostage by troublesome software code and insufficient testing is the technologists worst nightmare. When troubles arose with the Denver baggage systems complicated code, BAE programmers had to customize the software to handle each individual software related problem. This process rudely resulted in code hacking. If the baggage handling system has all of its problems solved, it will be via hack-o-rama, wrote Larry OBrian. System Testing According to John Dodge, 75 percent of all information systems projects are plagued by quality problems, and only 1 percent of the projects are completed on time. Dodge cites insufficient software testing as the most frequent culprit and describes it as one of the thorniest client/server issues. Munich officials had advised Denver to leave plenty of time and resources for testing. At the Munich airport, where a smaller automated baggage system sorts baggage, engineers spent two years testing the system. In addition, the system was up and running 24 hours a day for six months before the airport even opened. The Munich officials said that the Denver staff did not heed their advice. Although BAE had tried to leave sufficient time for testing, they were constrained by their promises of a quick pace in developing the system. Moreover, troubleshooting the maze of software was a slow process. According to DiFonso himself, Underestimating the time required to discover problems, fix them, and retest, was the main reason for the opening delays. Testing the systems mechanical side was